Dramaturgical Dip: Chekhov's Era

Russia in the 19th and early 20th century

The three plays in our season, The Seagull, The Cherry Orchard and Three Sisters all take place outside of the major urban centers of Russia. Anton Chekhov was an astute observer of daily life, and he considered much of his work as humorous (Russian humor is notoriously dark). At the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Russia was going through significant upheaval due to shifting ideologies. You can read more about some of the most prevalent societal changes of Chekhov’s era below.

Class, Estates, and Property

In 19th century Russia, the concept of "estate" (soslovie) referred to legally defined social classes, rather than just land ownership. These estates were crucial for determining social status, rights, and obligations within the Russian Empire. The term "soslovie" was used to describe the social structure, encompassing legal and social standing. The system was partially hereditary and partially dependent on occupation; individuals could sometimes move between estates through career advancement, education, or social mobility.

The four main estates were Nobility, Clergy, Peasantry, and Urban Dwellers, with special consideration for "inorodtsy" (non-Russians), each with specific legal and social standing. The nobility enjoyed significant privileges, including land ownership (often with serfs), exemption from certain taxes and military service, and access to specific educational institutions. Noble estates varied in size and grandeur, from lavish palaces in cities and country estates to smaller, more modest holdings. Noble estates often included manor houses, outbuildings (stables, kitchens, etc.), parks, and sometimes churches. These estates were often centers of cultural and social life.

The Clergy comprised the Orthodox Church clergy and their families, with varying degrees of social standing and influence. They were granted certain privileges and exemptions based on their religious role. 

Peasants constituted the majority of the population and were divided into state peasants (personally free but with restrictions) and serfs (bound to the land and their owners). Serfdom, abolished in 1861, was a defining feature of peasant life, tying them to the land and the landowners.

Urban Dwellers (Meschane), included merchants, artisans, and other urban residents who were not part of the nobility or clergy. They were further divided into guilds, artisans, and other occupational groups.

Serfdom

In Tsarist Russia, serfs were unfree peasants legally bound to the land and obligated to work for a landowner. While not considered chattel slaves in the same way as in the Americas, their lives were often characterized by harsh conditions and limited freedom, resembling slavery in many practical aspects. Historically serfs could be sold only together with the land to which they were "attached". However, this stopped being a requirement by the 19th century, and serfs were practically indistinguishable from slaves.

Serfdom most commonly existed in the central and southern areas of the Tsardom of Russia. The emperor and the highest state officials feared that the peasants' emancipation would be accompanied by popular unrest, given the reluctance of the landlords to lose their serf property, but took some actions to alleviate the situation of the peasantry.

Serfdom was abolished by Tsar Alexander II's emancipation reform of 1861. Scholars have proposed multiple overlapping reasons to account for the abolition, including fear of a large-scale revolt by the serfs, the government's financial needs, changing cultural sensibilities, and the military's need for soldiers.

The Troubles

While the term "Time of Troubles" specifically refers to a much earlier period of Russian history (late 16th and early 17th centuries) marked by dynastic crisis, civil war, and foreign intervention, the late 19th century in Russia was undoubtedly a period characterized by widespread discontent, social unrest, and mounting pressure for political reform. This environment of instability laid the groundwork for the Revolution of 1905 (a year after the premiere of The Cherry Orchard).

Russia's agricultural system was inefficient and lacked investment and technological advancement, leading to widespread poverty and even famine among the peasant population. Heavy redemption payments following the emancipation of serfs in 1861 further burdened peasants, who struggled with land, hunger and inadequate land allotments. Russia also experienced a significant population boom in the late 19th century, exacerbating pressure on land and resources in both rural and urban areas.

Industrialization, though late compared to Western Europe, led to the growth of a concentrated urban working class. This new proletariat faced harsh working conditions, long hours, low wages, and overcrowded & unsanitary housing - fostering a breeding ground for discontent and strikes.

The Tsarist regime's insistence on rigid autocracy largely excluded the population from participating in government. This created tension, especially among the educated elements of society (the intelligentsia) who desired greater political freedom and social progress. Growing discontent gave rise to various revolutionary movements like the Narodniks (Populists), Marxists, and anarchists, who advocated for radical change and challenged the existing social and political order.